1/12 Jobs in the Formal Sector (2009)

Geography- half yearly

Tourism

Global GDP 9.1% (2010)

1/12 jobs in the formal sector (2009)

$919 Billion US in 2010

Advanced $580 bilion

Emerging $339 billion

China has increased its rank as a major destination area

2010 global arrivals 940 million 3.4% growth

Tourism is defined as the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for no more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other reasons. (WTO)

The nature of tourism

• $919 billion US generated by tourism in 2010 compared to US $453 billion in 1999.
• Tourism is forever changing e.g. it can be affected by lots of things.
• After the second world war the phenomenon of mass tourism occurred due to the increase in affluence of people from more developed countries and the rapid movement of people.

Spatial patterns of tourism

• When mass tourism fist began in the 1950’s 97% of all tourism was concentrated in 15 countries alone, these were all in western Europe and North America.
• The source countries of this tourism is 70% from developed countries.
• Globalisation has effected the spatial distribution of the tourism industry, as it increased global activity.
• Tourism has also helped globalisation as when people travel they take their ideas and ideologies with them.

Future directions of tourism

• Will continue to be a dominant global industry.
• Short term- may experience less growth of negative growth due to disease, terrorism and the financial state of the world.
• The spatial distribution of the global tourism industry will continue to expand especially in less developed countries and in Asia.
• There will be an increase in intra-regional tourism.
• When the middle east runs out of oil- may turn to tourism.
• The source of tourists will continue to change as people from developing nations become more affluent.

Overview

Reasons for travel

• Leisure and recreations
• Education
• Medical
• Business
• Visiting family and friends
• Relgion

Types of tourism

• Group tour
• FIT (free and independent traveller)
• Backpacker
• Religious pilgrimages
• Adventure travels
• Weddings/ honeymoons
• Farm stays
• Ecotourism
• Schoolies

Factors explaining the nature, spatial patterns and future directions of Tourism

Biophysical

• Factors such as climate topography and site influence the type of tourism, infrastructure, spatial patterns and future directions of tourism.

Climate

• Dry climate- humid and warm most of the year: Australian, Egypt and Mediterranean- outdoor recreation.
• Polar climate- cool, snow: Switzerland and European Alps- skiing.
• Climate determines the length and profitability of the tourism industry e.g Thredbo- little snow cover often limits the peak tourism season.

Natural features

• Some destinations have become popular tourist destinations because of their unique biophysical characteristics:
• Trekkers are attracted to the altitude and mountainous peaks of the Himalayas
• Eco-tourists visit the wildlife in Kenya and Sri Lanka.
• Busloads and planeloads of tourists visit The Great Barrier Reef for its unique features.
• Ecotourists are attracted to areas of great biodiversity e.g. rainforests and coral reefs.

Biophysical deterrents to tourism

• Biophysical factors can also act as a deterrent to tourism. Tourists are often reluctant to travel to destinations that are affected by natural disasters and other inclement elements.
• The Sydney bush fires in January 2002 limited the flow of tourists to the Blue Mountains
• Reoccurring earthquakes in Indonesia
• Tropical cyclones in far north Queensland
• Monsoon conditions make South-East Asia a difficult place to travel to during the wet season.

Ecological factors

• Mass tourism is not considered to be sustainable
• Global tourism has pushed for eco-tourism.
• Ecotourism has evolved over the last 20 years as we have come to the realization and recognition of the negative impacts of mass tourism.
• An example of Eco-tourism Philip Island. It has a penguin parade and all profits are reinvested back into conservation and research. It has a variety of Australian animals drawing crowds from around the world to see them.
• Human induced climate change, possible threats include droughts, rising sea levels, flash flooding, forest fires and disease.

Economic factors

• Tourism is the largest industry in the world, it is the biggest source of foreign exchange for many countries.
• Africa attract only 2.5% of international tourists.

Economic advantages of tourism include:

• Employment the tourist industry employs large numbers of people work in the provision of accommodation, catering, transport, entertainment and other service industries and souvenir trade.
• It also adds to the diversity of the economy
• Increases tax revenues
• Improves a country’s balance of payments
• The trickle down effect.

Undeveloped countries

• Tourism is also seen as a path to the development of undeveloped countries.
• WTO is implementing a plan that attempts to alleviate poverty through tourism.
• The effort of this initiative will be concentrated in Africa, as the WTO believes there is a lot of untapped potential in African tourism, biophysical factors make it an attractive destination.
• Tourist numbers are growing in Africa, by 2020 the WTO estimates that as a result Africa will have 77 million tourist arrivals.

SocioCultural

• Features of history of culture draw masses of attention and is an attraction for tourists.
• E.g Egypt, famous ruins, temples etc.
• Three major forms of culture have been identified as attracting visitors:

• Forms of culture that are inanimate or do not directly involve human input.
• Forms of culture that are reflected in the normal daily life of a destination.
• Forms of culture that are especially animated and may involve particular events of depict historic or famous occurrences.

• Sometimes cultures may have a negative impact on another culture e.g introduction of crime, gambling or prostitution.
• Example: Italy, for the Colosseum, the Parthenon, Greece, St Paul’s Cathedral, London. Religious pilgrimages take people to the Vatican in Rome, Mecca in Saudi Arabia and Jerusalem in Israel.

Technological improvements:

• Developments in transport technology have shaped the growth of global tourism turning it into a mass market, destinations are now more wide spread than those reachable by train and ship in the early 20th century.
• Developments in aircraft are designed to reduce traveling times and increase traveling capacity; such changes help to reduce the cost of travel. The latest airbus craft is the A380, the largest civil aircraft ever built.
• There have also been advancements in trains, for example very fast trains now operate in Europe and Japan and are a very popular means of transport. More recently the development of the channel tunnel, links mainland Europe with the UK.
• Cruise ships is the fastest growing area of the tourist industry. The Voyager Of The Sea on the Caribbean Line can carry more than 3000 passengers and has a nine-hole golf course and many theatres.
• Information technology has aided in globalisation, providing an instant direct link for hotels, airlines and customers all around the world. For example information technologies are used for marketing tourist destination, hotel reservations, flight bookings and seating systems. During 2002 the number of online ticket sales for Qantas crew 100%.

Organisational

• Who controls the industry and who owns it?
• The growth in TNC’s and removal of barrier (globalisation) has promoted a industry with few large companies dominating it.
• Development of small-scale niche tourism (ecotourism).
• Large TNC’s have diversified in that industry both vertically and horizontally so that they can demoniate.
• E.g Six continent, starwood hotels and resorts and accor.

political

• Internal factors such as Taxes, Quotas, Zoning for hotels and casino’s, tax concessions, national parks and state tourism offices all effect tourism.
• A government can also regulate labor and put in airports and roads.
• Generally a government understands how important Tourism is for its economy so they will work to promote it.
• External political factors such as the WTO, regional agreements such as ASEAN, the Euro, Neap – national ecotourism accreditation program.
• Political instability will make people avoid a destination as they will think it unsafe e.g. Libya, Afghanistan, Greece and Sir lanka.
• Example of Australian tourist advertising: Lara Bingle, where the Bloody hell are you?
• The Australian government offers tourists the “Tourist Refund Scheme” which is a refund paid on goods totaling $300 or more spent in the same store.
• The Australian government also offers the “wine Equalisation Tax” which is the tax refund on wine purchased by tourists.

Ecosystems and their management.

Topic 2: Ecosystems at risk

Ecosystems and their management.

Two case studies

 Intertidal wetlands (Towra Point Nature Reserve)

 Alpine Regions (KNP)

Definition: An ecosystem is the dynamic complex interactions of plant, animal and micro-organisms (biotic) and the non-living (abiotic) components of the environment.

Human induced modifications- human changes.

Natural stress- natural changes.

Abiotic- non-living.

Biotic- living.

Study the importance of understanding the processes that result in a number of diverse ecosystems (Terrestrial and aquatic) and allow these ecosystems to function in their natural environments.

Why are they at risk?

• Not all ecosystems are at risk
• Habitats in harsh conditions
• The species have then adapted to suit the climate e.g. The Mountain Plume Pine grows adjacent to rocks for protection and warmth, its adapted to grow very slowly because of the cold. Mountain pygmy possum goes is to topour, which is partial hibernation to survive
• It is difficult for species to cope with change, they are changed by human induced modifications and natural stress
• Lack resilience- unable to bounce back
• Hence they need very careful management
• To manage it well it is important to understand the processes and functions. Then work out strategies- use benchmarks. The Great Barrier Reef marine park has world-class management.
• We look at two forms of management: traditional (sustainable) and contemporary.
• They must then evaluate.

State of dynamic equilibrium

• Always changing
• Always finding a balance
• Ability to adapt

State of disequilibrium

• There is a change
• Unable to find the balance
• Unable to adapt

Ecosystems and their management

1. Biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning

This section looks at the natural processes and functioning of ecosystems.

Ecosystems are dynamic and complex interactions between abiotic and biotic elements of the environment. Ecosystems can be of any size from a tiny puddle to a huge rainforest. There can even be ecosystems within ecosystems. There are certain levels in each ecosystem.

Refer to Sheet 2/02/12

Understanding The Text page 18

1. Ecology is the study of organisms and their relationship to one another and their surroundings.
2. Ecosystems are dynamic and complex interactions between abiotic and biotic elements of the environment.
3. This is because the first tropic level in every ecosystem requires sunlight to photosynthesis, this is then eaten and passed to on to each level.
4. Ecosystems are classified according to their dominant feature. They are names according to their climate, physical features and vegetation.
5. Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems which are found on land, aquatic ecosystems are found in water.
6. An Ecotone is the area in where an ecosystem blend into adjacent an adjacent ecosystem. An Ecotone contains organisms common to both ecosystems, but may also have organisms unique to that area.
7. The biosphere is all living things. Both plants and animals.
8. The Ecosphere is the ecosystem of the planet; the totality of all ecosystems. It is the collection of living and dead organisms.
9. Population: A particular section, group or type of organisms living in a certain ecosystems.

Species: all organisms of the same kind that are potentially capable of breeding and producing fertile offsprings.

Habitat: the environment of a living organism.

Community: A group of interdependent organisms living together in a common environment and interacting with one another.

Video: Biophysical interactions

• The interactions of the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere enable life on earth.
• It is divided by the Abiotic and the biotic.
• Deforestation of a sub-tropical rain forest in the Bellingen region has resulted in degradation.
• Living only enough nutrients for grass.
• Must important nutrients to the land.
• Turbidity: when water gets dirty from soil erosion.

They all interact to form an ecosystem.

Understanding the text page 20

1. The food chain is a series of organisms, each eating or decomposing the preceding one. The food web is a network of interconnected food chains.
2. A tropic level is a position in a food chain or ecological pyramid occupied by a group of organisms with similar feeding mode.
3. Nutrients is recycled in a ecosystem because it moves from tropic level to tropic level.
4. The decomposers break down waste and animals so that the nutrients can be returned to the ground to begin the cycle again.
5. The productivity of an ecosystem is measured by the carrying capacity or the total amount of organisms, which can be sustained by the environment.

The Energy Flow

Refer to next sheet.

Cycles

• There are a number of cycles that keep the biophysical environment functioning.
• These include: the water cycle, the nutrients cycle and the carbon cycle.

Interactions

• Ecosystems are dependent upon the interactions between the abiotic and biotic components.
• For example: Atmosphere: Precipitation, wind, temperature; Lithosphere: topography, soil; Hydrosphere: access to water, river, streams, ground water.
• These characteristics are used to classify ecosystems.

Ecosystems of similar characteristics are referred to as biomes.

Vulnerability and resilience of ecosystems

• Ecosystems exist in a state of dynamic equilibrium (DE)- interations between the abiotic and biotic.
• If this balance is changed a disclimax community could evolve.
• See handout of Climax communities.
• Ecosystems change over time and go through a number of successions.
• Each succession level reaches dynamic equilibrium for example the royal national park south of Sydney started as bare rock, and as cracks were eroded moss and lichen were able to survive with insects, in turn they produced more nutrients, which allowed larger species to survive in the area.
• Each succession level can be called a climax community.
• If there is a change, for example over grazing one part of the ecosystem may be disrupted to the extent that the original species cannot recover and a totally knew set of flora and fauna exists in that area, this is referred to as a disclimax community.
• Some ecosystems are more vulnerable to change, the types of change are natural stress and human induced modification.
• The ability of these ecosystems to deal with change is called resilience, which is the ability to bounce back.
• Natural stresses include: Land slides, Volcano’s, floods, earth quakes, hurricanes, tsunamis and drought.
• Human induced modification: Urban development, Global warming, deforestation, costal modification, agriculture, pyromaniac, pollution, overfishing and hunting.
• Ecosystems are interdependent on each other, for example the mangroves prevent sediment from getting in the water and in the reefs. The reef is a storm buffer which prevent damage and the sea grass in-between cleans the water.
• Ecosystems that cannot bounce back from change are known as ecosystems at risk.
• Signs of ecosystems at risk- Drop in primary production, increase nutrient losses, decline in indicator species, increase in insect, pests or disease, decline in species diversity and introduction of contaminants.

Understanding the Text- page 27

1. All ecosystems function in a state of dynamic equilibrium or continual state of balanced change. This is because of the interrelationship of the elements in the ecosystem. Changes occurring because of the interrelationship between minerals, energy and communities varies over time.
2. If an ecosystem is located in a area with harsh characteristics such as extreme temperatures, winds, topography etc. because the plants and animals have adapted to harsh conditions so when a circumstance in the ecosystem changes because of either human induced modification or natural stress then the organisms are not able to adapt quick enough.

Vulnerability: the ease with which an ecosystem can be altered.

Resilience: the ability of an ecosystem to deal with change. They can bounce back.

Ecosystems gain stability when all elements are balanced, in dynamic equilibrium.

3 important features of stability:

 Inertia: The ability to resist change, e.g. a rainforest has high biodiversity and therefore can restore the ecosystem after any disturbance. It cannot however resist change when you remove all vegetation.

 Constancy: The ability of a population within an ecosystem to maintain its numbers or size within the limits of the natural resources.

 Resilience: the ability of an ecosystem to deal with change or bounce back.

There are 4 factors that will influence the vulnerability of ecosystems:

 B- Biodiversity: the number and variety of species at anyone place at anyone time.

 E- Extent: How large is the ecosystem.

 L- Location: Where it is.

 L- Linkages: that occur within the ecosystem and with other ecosystems.

Page 24

Biodiversity

Genetic diversity

• The genetic diversity is the variety of genetic information contained in all the individual plants animals and microorganism.
• It occurs within or between populations of species as well as between species.
• Favors the survival of a species in terms of which is the fittest when under stress.
• E.g. a British study has shown that peach potato aphids which are resistant to common pesticides are less able to survive the British winters compared to the aphids that are not resistant to pesticides.

Species diversity